In a short period of time, artificial intelligence (AI) large language models (LLMs) like ChatGTP and Claude have made leaps and bounds in terms of their size and sophistication. Size, as measured by the number of parameters, has increased by a factor of one thousand in merely five years, and it’s not projected to stop (Figure 1). This rapid growth raises numerous questions about the future of AI, while also presenting immediate challenges, with power consumption being a significant concern.  

In power electronics, rectification is the conversion of alternating current (AC) to direct current (DC). After the AC signal enters a rectifier circuit consisting of power diodes, the resulting raw rectified waveform yields a series of half sine waves with significant ripple. In order to minimize the pulsating DC voltage, a smoothing capacitor is placed in parallel with the load across the rectifier output. As the rectifier voltage rises, the capacitor charges and stores energy like a reservoir. Then when the rectifier voltage falls, the capacitor discharges, greatly reducing the ripple voltage.

Supercapacitors feature unique characteristics that set them apart from traditional batteries in energy storage applications. Unlike batteries, which store energy through chemical reactions, supercapacitors store energy electrostatically, enabling rapid charge/discharge cycles. In certain applications, this gives them a significant advantage in terms of power density, lifespan, efficiency, operating temperature range and sustainability.  

In an ideal world, capacitors could be designed in a way where they would exhibit no resistance. However, this is physically impossible to achieve as there will always be some type of internal resistance in a capacitor that appears in series with the capacitance of the device. Known as equivalent series resistance (ESR), the level of this resistance will vary across capacitors depending on a variety of factors including the dielectric materials used, frequency of the application, leakage, and quality and reliability of the capacitor. The two graphs in Figure 1 show an example of how ESR can change as frequency increases across various capacitances on two different classes of ceramic dielectrics.

The types of threats facing radar systems are continuing to diversify. To adapt, the industry is evolving toward fully digital arrays that can support a variety of mission profiles. As these systems grow more and more complex, component-level decisions have an increasingly significant impact on overall performance.   

As power conversion systems evolve to leverage higher voltages and wide bandgap semiconductors like silicon carbide (SiC) and gallium nitride (GaN), system designers face new challenges in managing the electromagnetic interference (EMI) frequency landscape. Here’s how EMI filters play an important role in ensuring safe operation at higher voltages. 

Monolithic microwave integrated circuit (MMIC) amplifiers are widely used in defense radar systems. The industry recognizes them as a compact, high-performance option that’s reliable and easy to integrate. Whether they serve a receive (e.g., low noise amplifier (LNA)) or transmit (e.g., power amplifier (PA)) function, MMIC amplifiers rely on bypass capacitors to perform their core function to amplify microwave signals. 

Radio frequency (RF) and microwave applications involve the transmission and receipt of high-frequency electromagnetic signals. RF refers toalternating current (AC) signals at 3 kHz to 300 GHz, and microwave refers to a higher range, closer to 300 MHz to 300 GHz. Capacitance, and by extension impedance, varies with frequency, so capacitors play a variety of critical roles in these RF and microwave circuits. With many options for configuration, they function in energy storage and voltage regulation, DC blocking, impedance matching, filtering and more. 

DC link capacitors are commonly used in power converters as an intermediary buffer between an input source to an output load that have different instantaneous power, voltages, and frequencies. In electric vehicle (EV) applications, DC link capacitors help offset the effects of inductance in inverters, motor controllers, and battery systems. They also serve as filters that protect EV subsystems from voltage spikes, surges, and electromagnetic interference (EMI).

Ongoing innovation in solar power electronics and rising interest in photovoltaic (PV) installations underscores the importance of robust and efficient electronic components. Capacitors play a key role in power conversion systems as they function to smooth and regulate power flow, protect against voltage surges and filter unwanted signals.